Equity Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Equity Theory - Essay Example Equity theory is useful to understand why people behave in a certain manner that satisfy their desires and how they relate to these achievements. It is based on the simple belief that every employee in the organization wants to be treated fairly in relation to others. Here, the two aspects, i.e. ‘fairness’ and ‘relativity with others’ vary among individuals; these perceptions are greatly influenced by sociocultural aspects to a great extent. Many management researches have indicated that managing people in the contemporary global organizations that consist of employees from different sociocultural backgrounds has been a great challenge. Motivational needs vary in different cultures, which makes the managers’ job even more difficult to motivate their people according to what the employees perceive as a source of their motivation. In such situations, managers can improve their awareness of their people’s motivational needs through better people c onnect and interpersonal relationship. Other than actual motivational needs of every individual, managers can strive to know the extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors of their people. In order to establish equity, organizations ensure goals and expectations are set, and reward schemes are made. All individuals will be rewarded in accordance with these policies and plans, which will cater to the extrinsic motivation. However, managers will have to make an effort to understand the intrinsic motivational factors for their people.

Technology Evaluation Same time, Same place Essay

Technology Evaluation Same time, Same place - Essay Example This is because the information is present in people’s profiles and also it is easier to ask the chat friends to find the information you need. This technology reduces efforts of working together where you have to organize meetings and spend a lot of time arguing and in conflict resolution, hence the amount of time spent working on tasks is reduced. In the political dimensions, the technology helps reach relevant people needed for achievement of the performance goals. The technology can reach managers due to many people being connected in the chat and this enables sharing of ideas, challenges, saves time and costs hence meeting the expectations and goals of the job description and valuing workers whom much information is shared with (Chickowski, 2009). The Internet Relay Chat helps the team members in the organization to complete tasks quickly because they reduce time for paper work and searching customers and suppliers, this therefore improves productivity. Due to the chat containing personal information of different individuals, team members understand each other well in terms of their strengths and weaknesses hence effective working relationship among those team members. Technologically, the Internet Relay Chat enables individuals to use their personal computers and even their mobile phones to chat. This therefore means that connectivity with individuals in remote parts is enabled due to the use of mobile phones and personal computers. The technology of the internet chat enables integration with applications in the intranet of the individuals using the technology hence allows its wider

How Technology Has Affected Teaching

How Technology Has Affected Teaching The unknown is full of fear. Technology can be a scary thing. Teaching can be a mind-blowing thing. If one is, the combination of all three is something that is only seen in schools today. Teaching with technology is a paralyzing fear that all teachers face on some level. With only a few hours available outside of the classroom, training is not available to all teachers. Such fear of the unknown and unavailable training, cause many teachers to reject technology on a wide scale. There has been technology the dawn of time. Technology 200 years ago meant nothing to do with electricity. It could be simply as a lever and pulley system for automatic door opening at Monticello, home of Thomas Jefferson. Technology has always scared people as it is something new and unfamiliar to them. What people see as fancy technology today will only be a thing that the next generation is used to and feels is old. When the printing press was first invented by Johann Guttenberg the aristocracy was afraid of what the new machine would mean for the disseminating of information amongst the people. In the end they learned how to use it and took advantage of its abilities themselves. Adaptations have been made and new technology has been invented since, but the principle is still the same. Copy machines, fax machines, and scanners all use the same idea behind the machine. If you ask a student today to use a typewriter to write their paper and then type another copy for themselves they would look at you like your crazy. They would either write it on a computer and just print another copy or run to a copy machine. When it comes to finding the information that they use in their papers, students in the past decade have turned to the internet in increasing numbers. Students in college feel that libraries are a place to access the internet and a quiet place to study, not to look up information in the books that are on the shelves. The Dewey Decimal system in cataloging books has gone to the way side in favor of online version of texts that students can access. In its early stages, the internet was more or less just a collect of text based documents without the capability to display images or video files. Just as with any technology, the internet continues to evolve. With websites such as YouTube ©, Facebook ©, and Twitter © teachers have a wide variety of places to look up information and supplements to their lessons. However some sites have been criticized for the information they contain. Wikipedia is one site that when it first started was a place to allow people to post information about any topic that people could then look up all in one place. But along with new topics, people were changing the information that was already on the site with incorrect information. It was not until the death of actor Heath Ledger that the creators of the often cited source began to change how information was updated. While the site still allows most information to update without review, information about persons of high interest and information ab out government policies and laws must be approved before they are posted online. The majority of teachers do not think about technology they use on a daily basis. From their cars to get to school or their smart phones to access their email from parents, teachers use technology and the internet to make themselves a better educator. Problem Statement There is not much research available to how the internet has affected researching in teaching. While there is a plethora of information on teacher perspectives of technology and an abundance of articles dealing with the internet in schools, not much information is available to how teachers have changed their teaching style in dealing with any kind of research their students conduct. There is a varying degree to which teachers approach the internet now. From subject to subject, students are faced with different styles. If there was guide for all classes, students would be able to go to each class and know how to conduct research in a proper manner that all their teachers would accept. Research Statement In this phenomenological study, I will interview for Northern Virginia high school teachers on how the research process changes for them with the growth and availability of the internet. Significance of the Study With more and more school systems pushing for teachers to use technology, some teachers are weary in how it affects their students. The No Child Left Behind Law has forced teachers to address how they introduce material to their students. While the internet has been used by students to conduct research, it now the teachers that have become the students in an attempt to understand what their students are looking up and how they can use it in their classroom. But how has the internet changed how teachers address research? This study is seeking to determine to what extent a variety of teachers have done in an attempt to address their student quest for an education. Chapter 2 Review of Literature The unknown is full of fear. Technology can be a scary thing. Teaching can be a mind-blowing thing. If one is, the combination of all three is something that is only seen in schools today. Teaching with technology is a paralyzing fear that all teachers face on some level. With only a few hours available outside of the classroom, training is not available to all teachers. Such fear of the unknown and unavailable training, cause many teachers to reject technology on a wide scale. Technology in the Classroom Honey, Culp, and Craig (1999) gave a perspective in a paper they presented at a national conference, on where technology and educational research are heading. Based on their research, they found three main factors that made them think differently. The first dealt with the nature of technological elements. The second was the kinds of things that were being asked in research. The third one they mentioned was how the research itself was being done. The main focus of their research was Union City, New Jersey. In 1989, the school was failing almost all of the standards that the state uses to judge schools on their performance. In fact they only passed eight of the 52 that are stated. To face these, they went through a massive overhaul including extending class periods and increasing the in-services required for its teachers. Amongst these improvements, computers were added to each classroom to assist in learning. All of these as well as those in the local city office building, libraries, and others were joined by computer. After a few years of studying this school system, they determined that the technology that was brought in had the largest impact on the students. It bolstered several successes including those with creativity and the whole language approach. While new teachers are familiar with this information, Ertmer, Addison, Lane, Ross, and Woods (1999) examine what teachers believe the role of technology should be in the classroom. This study focused more on the elementary school level. Even with increased technology including smart boards and one if not more computers available in each room it is still hard for teachers to feel comfortable working with the new fancy equipment. While some felt that they did not want to teach with technology, some just felt that things were fine and nothing new had to be done. They found that the teachers they interviewed, observed, and surveyed mentioned on some level that technology supported what they were doing in the classroom. Some made references to the use of technology in regards to how it enhances their current curriculum, but any use beyond that is not being used. There were minimal references to any emerging technologies. One teacher described that she found that students were more likely to work in pairs and groups on assignments. When the eight teachers were asked what were their reasons were for using technology, student benefits were near or at the top of all the lists. While there were a number of other benefits, some of the teachers mentioned that several metaphorical barriers were present. They found that time was a big factor in how much technology they use. While once programs and other equipment is running, it makes several things run faster and smoother, the time it takes to make sure it runs properly can out-weigh the benefits. While the teachers faced the barriers, they found several ways to work around them through local college and community support. One of these ways is in parental support for teaching children about technology earlier. Bergen (1999) interviewed an 8th grader on how she views technology in the classroom. Kristen, the student, was raised on computer that were manly used for games that were made to be educational only. While she was in elementary school, a new computer lab was built and allowed her access to more programs. However, it was not until middle school that she was able to use computers more to help with reports and find icons to place in reports. They also found that many teachers were starting to increase use of technology as more and more attention was brought on individualism and the diverse programs available encouraging students to work harder. It is up to the individual teacher to foster creativity and help their pupils become better students. In a U.S. Department of Education study (2005), teachers were asked on their perspectives on technology available to them. Technology that could reach beyond the classroom ranked at the top of a list of technologies teachers felt were the most useful for them. Computers that had internet access were 68% the most essential amongst all teachers. Based on their 2000-01 survey, only 57% felt that the technology that they had was sufficient. That is just within the school. Only four percent said the same thing when it came to technology in the individual classroom. While this number has increased over the past five years, it is still lower than what most principals and school district wish they could do. A new wave of technological scare is the cell phone as Burns and Lohenry (2010) discuss in regards to their use in the classroom. With several schools now having policy against cell phones, more and more students are actually having them and secretly using them in the classroom. While it is essential to keep and maintain order in the classroom, student that were surveyed said that they would be more into the lesson if they were going to be able to use their cell phone. A number of professors at the college level have started to allow students to use their cell phones for texting while in class as long as have them on silent or vibrate. Phone calls and texting during a test is still off limits. Mason, Berson, Diem, Hicks, Lee, and Dralle (2000) take on the role of discussing how technology can be used to help prepare social studies teachers. They discuss how teachers are trained in college how to use technology to further their learning, they are often more knowledgeable or willing to learn newer techniques. In a recent National Center for Education Statistics study, 95% of schools and 63% of classrooms are connected to the internet. These schools have made use of the digital archives that many schools are creating to help with social studies research amongst students. One of the issues Mason et al (2000) bring up is the accessibility of inappropriate information. This is taken care of by a number of technological programs that prevent certain sites from being accessed. Some of these include peer to peer sites that allow the trading of music illegally. This is to help students stay on task while also keeping the school safe from legal action. Several programs are discussed that are accessible through online sources that students and teachers use alike to help within the classroom. While technology is important to use, its just as important as training to use it properly. Social Studies of course is not the only subject that is taught. Mathematics is one of almost all schools core subjects as it is used in most other classes. The Wang et al. (2008) article discusses about how effective technology can be in early learning environments. Their study was one of the first on early learning. Many studies deal with middle school and higher levels, while this study dealt with pre-school. While the lessons and the printed materials are still for a younger age, kids were seen using digital cameras, digital microscopes, and digital video recorders. They focus on the supports and what technology can mean to kids. In the age when electronic toys are the strong majority of the market, kids are introduced to electronics at a very young age. They recommend kids be introduced to the proper use of technology at a young age and that all children get an equal and fair access. Li and Ma (2010) take a different approach from the mathematics class point-of-view. They argue that since computer technology had become more popular that is undeniable that its role as an important tool for learning. They discuss some of the encouraging figures including their study in how mathematic scores have increased when teachers use technology. They actually argue that more research is needed to be done from a mathematics point of view. Uses of Internet in the Classroom While the internet is a form of technology, it takes it to a whole new level. The information available to students and teachers is astronomical and some of that unknown is scary to them. Scheuerell (2010) discusses some of the fears of allowing students to use the internet. Some fear that it will make more students work alone. Video games and other electronic devices have forced more students to seclusion. While this is true, they provide evidence that while the student might be at the computer for game console alone, they are often using the internet to play with others via voice-enabled communications. The internet is also used for video chatting which can enable students in different locations to collaborate on assignments. Scheuerell explains that students do better on assignments, even online ones, when they are tasked with interpreting what they have learned, more than just looking up information. They feel that they are part of the work and that it is just not some kind of busy work. Cooperative learning can be done even on a local network and not the full internet. Many colleges and universities have local networks that allow students to use multiple computer s to work on a project and then send to each other. The students that were observed and discussed in the article were tasked with creating a webpage about local history in Missouri. Fear can also be used to welcome in the internet. Bonk (2010) explains that it might take a catastrophe to have how people look at schools in regards to the internet. He goes on to say that Katrina enabled many high school and college students to take classes online from other states and other universities. Indiana University High School is an example of how the internet can be used as a virtual high school. Students who attend this 21st century high school range from rural students to pregnant teenagers. The coursework that is done is the same that would be done at a local school, but for those that are unable to attend on a daily basis for a number of reasons this increases the chance that the student does not get frustrated. Bonk developed 10 methods that are available today. These include e-learning and blended learning to real-time mobility and portability. Digital books, as is discussed, are another step in using new technology in the classroom. With the iPad and Kindle, studen ts are able to access their books all at once, instead of carrying them around in a backpack or in their locker. These devices, especially the iPad, have several other uses including display programs and teaching programs that interact with the students and are more than just words in a textbook. With these, teachers can have an assignment tailored to each individual students needs without having to write or print out several directions or discuss individual directions out loud in front of the entire class. How can all these fears be relieved? Frye, Trathen, and Koppenhaver (2010) discuss the different needs that are met by using internet workshops and blog entries. Internet workshops are when teachers create a research based activity that students use to make a report on a subject. One of the top sites they mention teachers send students to is Delicious.com. Teachers are able to help guide students by creating social bookmarks that other students can use to help them, which cultivates the cooperative learning skill. They go into detail on how the internet workshops are built and designed by teachers to use it for more than just the one class, but available for multiple classes the student might have. The other topic they touch on is how the internet is used to keep up-to-date information available. Web-logs or blogs for short, are used along with internet workshops. Teachers can use blogs as journal entries for academic reasons and keep an accurate, detailed record of what the student( s) have been doing. It is not just teachers that need to know how to safely navigate these new technologies. Hardacre (2010) surveyed a number of students on various ways of communicating on the internet. In the early part of the 2000s a strong majority of student said they used MySpace compared to Facebook. Now the numbers have reversed. More and more teachers have begun using Facebook and other internet services to connect with their students. Libraries are increasing the number of computers and other technologies students can use to access the internet. Laptops are the top choice both amongst students and libraries to buy if they had money. But even if you relieve the fear of the use, the ability to use it could be difficult to come by. In the Technology Counts (2010) article, the topics of the problems in using and creating wireless networks are discussed. Connection issues have plagued wireless networks. From people not seeing a signal to slow speeds, wireless has its issues. The article states that if it is difficult for students to connect to a wireless network, they become frustrated; some even more so than what they would have been with paper texts. Networks are also expensive to create. With the number of people who would be accessing them, a good, professional level network is needed to accommodate the bandwidth. These can cost up to $125,000. That is just for the initial costs. A server administrator is needed to maintain and fix issues that arise. While a current staff member can serve this post, it is a full-time job that requires constant maintenance. They also discuss the benefits such as using smart phones to help alleviate some of the issues that the networks have. When the internet is used to such a large extent, that students need the internet to do their research and just function in school. Shiveley and VanFossen (2009) provide an explanation to how much the internet is actually used in the classroom. This literature review provides many sources as references, but states that there just is not much research out there for actual use in the classroom. Most of the material states what it should do and how it should help, but it does not provide detailed information on what teachers are specifically doing in class using the internet. They go on to discuss how in the social studies classroom, the attitude toward the internet is as a source of information only. Many teachers even limit the amount that a student can use as many false sources are on the World Wide Web. The full potential of the internet is not often realized by teachers who are afraid of false information. With many different programs and classroom materials available including WebQuests1 social studies teachers need to learn how much their curriculum can benefit from the internet. Mossbarger (2008) discusses the why the internet has actually become an addiction to some and should be included in textbooks. In his meta-analysis, Mossbarger mentions that more and more children are relying on the internet for social interaction and fail to see or understand the consequences. His data concludes that there are a few textbooks that deal with students and this addiction. The more attention, Mossbarger argues, that is brought to this, the more resources that will become available to treat it. Ratzan (1994) discusses how the problems faced in the earlier stages of the internet are still relevant today. One advantage of working with the internet environment is that things change quickly. One disadvantage of working win the internet environment is that things change quickly (p. 62). He discusses some of the different sources that are available including email and several types of books. These would all be available for students to do research on as a number of free sites are mentioned. There are a number of these that are geared primary toward a particular subject. Gayton (2008) explains the uses of teaching business in regards to the internet. All three of the teachers observed and interviewed, in a interpretive anaylsis found several flaws within uses of the internet. Most demonstrated and stated that the time it takes to create a lesson using the internet is too time consuming for their intended purposes. While being observed, each teacher was engaged in several poor teaching habits in regard to undirected usage. Gayton recommends that teachers, not just business ones get adequate training in use of technology and internet abilities and integrate them into their curriculum as its proven to have a positive impact on their students achievement. Most of the research available today comes from the public school sector. But with an increasing number of students attending private schools, thanks in part to school vouchers and school accountability, the internet has become a hub of information that these parochial schools have begun to incorporate. Gibbs, Dosen, Guerrero (2008) provide examples on how technology is used at the private school level, outside the money and restrictions of the public school systems. Their surveys concluded that while a few teachers use technology in different ways, for the most part Catholic school teachers used it very little. There is no church doctrine restricting what technology can be used, just on what information can/should be accessed. An overwhelming number of teachers, who used technology, use it to contact parents, presentations, and develop electronic portfolios of students work. They concluded that teachers used it as a preparatory instrument, but not as a teaching tool (p. 189). But after all is said and done, what is the current hot topic? Online universities have sprung up but as Doyle (2009) explains online high schools and colleges that were supposed to be used almost exclusively never took off like the industry hoped for. Despite universities like University of Phoenix, founded in 1976, which took online classes to a new level, it has not been until recent years that a larger push for people to take classes while not on a college campus. Singh, Mangalaraj, and Taneja (2010) discuss not just online universities but online classes in general. Research shows that online classes can be as effective as traditional classroom-based courses when appropriate technologies are used and sufficient interactivity is present (p. 299). They talk about the benefits of different programs that are available to students and teachers in these online courses. Remarks about each, whether they are good or bad are included in each of their research tables. This perspective allows teachers to see what programs are being used, where to find them, and how they can be applied to their classrooms. Conclusion Many teachers fear of technology and the internet stems from either a lack of training or fear of the unknown. The articles discussed are a combination of the positives and negatives. Some mention the benefits that teachers have learned from and used in their individual classrooms while others talk about the struggles and lack of training teachers have received to learn the potential of the internet. And while teachers might have a mind set against the internet, some students use their cell phones to access not only the world wide web but to text others. Some even use the technology to an unsafe level of addiction to such materials. Technology is ever changing and if we expect our students to change, then teachers to learn and understand it. The degree to which teachers use the technology is something only they can decide. Technology is all around us. Subjectivity I have always been surrounded by technology. My father is a computer system engineer since before I was born. We always had a computer. It might not have been the newest but we could always learn how to work with technology. Once I started doing research in school, I went to our computer at home. But when I was in school, I still had to use physical books. Most teachers I had did not have email or use the internet at all. So most of my research started on our computer but ended in books. Now that I am in college I have seen how teachers change how they allow students to do their research. Writing a literature review today is made a lot easier as articles are being published online or copies of them made available. Using laptops, desktops, and my iPod to access my emails and library resources have allowed for the literature review to be compiled. Chapter 3 Introduction The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the internet has changed teachers perspectives on students conduct research in their classrooms. This chapter lists the procedures for the study while talking about the sampling strategies used to solicit volunteers. It also includes the design, measurement and instrumentation, data collection, limitations, and data analysis. Research Questions These questions were ever changing. In the preliminary stages, articles were abundant and research questions were being revised on a daily basis. After completing the literature review, the following questions were finalized through careful scrutiny. How has research changed with the internet? What are the struggles that students face while doing research? And to what extent is the internet used in all aspects of the classroom? Procedures The focus of this phenomenological study is on teachers in the Northern Virginia area. Interviews will be conducted to analyze the significance the internet has had on how these teachers view it in regards to how their students conduct research. Sample The sample for this study will be four teachers in Northern Virginia. The teachers will come from various subject areas with a varied amount of teaching experience. Permission as been granted from Liberty High School, Bealeton, VA (Appendix B) and Kettle Run High School, Nokesville, VA (Appendix C). Teachers will not be solicited based upon gender. A mix of public and private schools will be used. Design The research design is a collection of answers based upon responses to interview questions. The questions will be grouped together and discussed in regards to the answer of all the subjects at the same time. Data Collection The data will be collected by individual interviews, recorded on a digital voice recorder, with each subject. See Appendix A for a listing of the interview questions. Interviews will be conducted both at the school of each subject, per approval from the principal (Appendix B C) as well as other locations as needed to facilitate the needs of each subject. Each participant will have signed a copy of the Informed Consent Form (Appendix D). Each interview will be transcribed into a document. Some data may also be collected by follow up interviews, email, and phone calls. The additional data will be transcribed as well. Copies of any additional information subjects are willing to provide will be attached as an appendix. Data Analysis The data will be analyzed for answers to specific questions and a summary of each answer will be included. Subjects will asked to correct any information collected upon being provided a copy of the transcript. After all the data is compiled, each subject will be provided with a copy of all interpretations and asked to give feedback. This is to be used a check for validity. Ethical Issues See Appendix E for Institutional Review Board forms. Monitoring Subjectivity To help keep track of any possible subjectivity in my research, I will be writing a journal entry, in a Word document for each day that I work on my research. I will include a copy of my journal entries as Appendix E after my research is complete. Validity Measuring validity can be a tricky subject. According to Maxwell (2005) the two main threats to validity are research bias and reactivity. Researcher bias can be addressed in several ways including keeping a journal of activities throughout the research process (appendix F). In reactivity, I will conduct my research in the most comfortable location for my subjects. Conducting the interviews away from a school setting is one method of reducing the influence the interviewer has. My main methods of checking validity will be to give each subject a copy of their interview transcript and to give each participant a copy of the final paper to check for inaccuracies of both. Implications/Significance/Contributions Implications in this research are that teachers have changed their ideas on research. If no changes exist with the changing technology, the implication that there is could be offensive to come teachers. Significance is that this research can prove technology and the internet has changed the way teachers allow students to conduct research. contribution is that a compilation of thoughts and changes that have been made, if any, could be invaluable to teachers and administrators as the this research will cover teachers of all years of teaching experience as well as across all subjects Limitations This study was a based in a single area of the United States and thus had a certain number of limitations. The findings of the study were limited to four teachers in Northern Virginia. The teachers were personally asked to participate in the study. Another limitation would be the number of years the teacher has been teaching. While it is part of the design it is a limitation based on the interaction of materials used in the classroom in recent decades. While public and private school teachers participated, home school teachers were not interviewed. This prevents from getting a possible perspective on a section of teachers that rely on technology and the internet in their classrooms heavily.

Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuels Essay -- Environment Pollution Es

Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels cause pollution, smog, and the greenhouse effect. Fossil fuels really do negatively impact our environment, especially when it comes to global warming, Although there is controversy over whether or not fossil fuels are causing the planet to warm, or whether it is warming naturally, there is significant research that supports the former hypothesis. When fossil fuels are burned, they emit different levels of carbon dioxide. The burning of fossil fuels has increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by a staggering twenty- five percent. It has also been implied that fossil fuels are associated with increased levels of nitrous oxide and methane, although they are not the main sources of these gasses. Carbon dioxide is a gas that traps heat in our atmosphere, and helps keep the planet at livable temperature. However, climatologists are now predicting that if the levels of carbon dioxide continue to increase, the temperature will rise and a number of different impacts can or will occur (Union). Among the many possible impacts of global warming, are more extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and the melting of glaciers. However, while researching, I stumbled upon a site that showed possible impacts, and where they would be most likely to occur. The key to the map had two different categories, â€Å"Harbingers†, and â€Å"Fingerprints†. Harbingers are â€Å"events that fores...

Questions Regarding Darwin’s Theory Essay

Darwin’s theory of natural selection is revolutionary and he himself is aware of the many difficulties that critiques might throw at him. In his book, â€Å"The Origin of the Species,† he explored these difficulties beginning with the question as to why there are often no intermediate or middle forms between species that are closely related. His answer to this is that the tough competition in nature combined with the small number of intermediate forms often led to their extinction. Only the well-adapted species survive in the wild, and so intermediate forms that don’t have the most adaptive characteristics are easily wiped out from nature. One of the key ideas in Darwin’s theory is that adaptive characteristics in animals are formed through time by numerous tiny modifications. He then posed the question whether it is possible for an animal to acquire certain characteristics that don’t fit its requirements for adaptation. He cited the fact that in most cases, animals have intermediate features that are adaptive to their needs. Thus, for example, flying squirrels may have evolved from simple squirrels and bats may have evolved from flying lemurs (Wichler, 1961, p. 35). There are also invertebrates with very simple eyes that consist of nothing more than pigment-coated optic nerves. Animals with more complex eye structures could have evolved from these creatures with very simple eyes. Darwin stated that his theory could be debunked if it could be illustrated that there are complex organs in nature that did not develop through numerous slight modifications through time (Wichler, 1961, p. 55). He concluded that since he couldn’t find such a case in nature, then his theory still was still true. Evolution does not only manifest in the physical characteristics of organisms, but also in their behavior. Darwin addressed the question of the development of complex behavior by discussing the behaviors of slave-making ants and honey bees that construct hexagonal cells in their hives. He explained that there is a wide range of patterns of behavior among different species. Ants that depend on slavery to survive may have evolved from ants that don’t need such behavior to exist. Similarly, honey bees that make hexagonal cells in their hives may have evolved from honey bees that make circular cells in their hives to reduce the use of wax. He concluded that the behaviors or instincts of organisms are not specially created, but rather result from the process of natural selection where, in a population with varied behaviors, only the fittest survive and the unfit, perish (Wichler, 1961, p. 60). During Darwin’s time, the primary belief is that hybridization is not possible because species have features that prevented fertile and viable hybrids from existing, which preserved the separation of species. Darwin argued that this was not the case, and that the difficulty of producing fertile and viable hybrids differed from one species to another, especially among plant species. There are cases where what were believed to be completely different species resulted in fertile viable hybrids, and cases where organisms that were believed to be varieties under the same species couldn’t easily produce hybrids. Darwin concluded that his theory of natural selection supported the idea that there are no fundamental differences between varieties and species (Arthur, 1987, p. 12). Supporting Research on Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Since Darwin’s time, a lot of progress has been made regarding his theory of evolution through natural selection. Today, biologists all over the world have synthesized the developments that were made for many years, resulting in the new synthesis of evolutionary theory. This synthesis draws ideas from the many branches of the discipline of biology, namely: paleontology, ecology, morphology, botany, systematics, cytology, and genetics (Arthur, 1987, p. 9). The new synthesis became possible because of the introduction of a reliable model of heredity, and the reconciliation of this model with models of natural selection emphasizing gradual evolutionary modifications through time. Scientists accepted many facets of Darwin’s theory and rejected some. Thinkers like August Weismann and Alfred Russel Wallace advocated neo-Darwinism which heavily emphasizes natural selection as a tool of evolution. They rejected Darwin’s claim that acquired characteristics also play a part in evolution. Today, the core concept of neo-Darwinism is understood as natural selection driving evolution with variations generated by recombination and genetic mutation (Arthur, 1987, p. 32). The search for a reliable model of heredity consistent with Darwin’s theory of natural selection led to a long debate by proponents of two schools of though: Mendelism and biometrics. Mendelians believed in Gregor Mendel’s research which was previously conceived to be incompatible with Darwin’s theory of natural selection. They believed that Mendel’s conclusions are compatible with saltationism however, which demonstrated evolution through jumps or big mutations. Karl Pearson and other biometrics opposed the Mendelians claiming empirical evidence pointed to the fact that variation was evidently continuous and not discrete in many organisms. Thus, Mendelism couldn’t be combined with Darwin’s theory during that time, and the Mendelians and biometricians debated hotly for about 20 years (Arthur, 1987, p. 40). Synthesis between Mendel’s and Darwin’s work only became possible through research conducted by RA Fisher, Sewall Wright and JBS Haldane. Fisher demonstrated how continuous variation observed by biometricians could result from the actions of several different genetic loci. Through this research, Fisher was able to establish that contrary to popular thinking, Mendelian genetics was consistent with Darwin’s idea of evolution through natural selection. JBS Haldane supported Fisher’s work by applying mathematical analyses to instances of natural selection in the real world. Haldane concluded that natural selection may work at a faster rate in the real world than Fisher assumed. Sewall Wright’s work further facilitated the synthesis of evolutionary theory by demonstrating genetic drift through the interactions of genetic combinations and inbreeding in small isolated populations (Gould, 1979, p. 20). Work on evolution by field naturalists and population geneticists was synthesized by Theodosius Dobzhansky. In his work, Dobhansky showed that populations in the real world had more genetic variations than many population geneticists assumed. Dobzhansky demonstrated that Darwin’s natural selection maintained genetic diversity in the population and drove changes in the forms of species (Gould, 1979, p. 25). Dobzhansky’s work was complemented by another researcher, Edmund Brisco Ford. Modern ecological genetics draws heavily from Ford’s work that showed how natural selection worked in nature. Ford studied populations of wild moths and butterflies in nature, which verified Fisher’s predictions. Ford was also the first to define and describe genetic polymorphism and its role in human populations to provide protection against diseases (Williams, 2001, p. 45). The correlation between variations in different populations and environmental factors like climate was first established by Bernhard Rensch, a German biologist. Rensch’s work influenced Ernst Mayr who emphasized the significance of the geographical isolation of sub-populations in evolution (Williams, 2001, p. 50). The modern or new synthesis of evolutionary theory was further explored by George Gaylord Simpson who showed that paleontology was compatible with evolution. Simpson’s research was crucial because at that time, many paleontologists disagreed that natural selection was the driving force of evolution. Simpson explained how fossil records were consistent with the synthesized theory of evolution which depicted evolution as having irregular branches, instead of linear. Research on natural selection did not only focus on animals through the years. G Ledyard Stebbins, a botanist, contributed to the new synthesis by showing hybridization’s effects in some types of plants. After the many advances made in the 1930s and 1940s, the new evolutionary synthesis was refined even further by the works of John Maynard Smith, George C. Williams, and WD Hamilton. These scientists took Darwin’s ideas and refocused them to a view of evolution that concentrated on the genetic level. Today, the new synthesis, with Darwin’s discovery of natural selection at its core, encompasses other scientific fields and concepts such as genetics and DNA. New discoveries like these allow Darwin’s concepts to be analyzed mathematically, producing vital information on selection, speciation, and altruism. Darwin’s theory is continuously being reviewed by evolutionary biologists today. One interpretation of the theory is by Richard Dawkins who asserted that the only real unit of selection is the gene. Dawkins also applied Darwin’s idea of the survival of the fittest to realms outside biology. For instance, he utilized the concept of natural selection to analyze cultural memes. Scientists and experts from different fields are continuously reviewing Darwin’s theory to explore its usefulness to biology and other disciplines. Conclusion Charles Darwin’s seminal work on evolution through natural selection is very important in understanding how species attained their physical forms and specialized behaviors in nature. It debunked the belief that the forms of species are constant because they are reflections in the mind of god. Instead, Darwin showed that species are forever changing through tiny modifications in their physical aspects and behavior through time. Darwin was also the first to explore the fact that there are no significant differences between variations and species. While many thinkers of the time believed that different species cannot produce hybrids because they have characteristics that prevented them from doing so, Darwin showed how the difficulty of hybridization differed from one species to another. Thus, the tiny differences in the forms and behaviors of organisms are the essential driving force of evolution. Darwin’s theory was not solid however because of the lack of a reliable model of genetics to aide his observations. For this reason, Darwin accepted Lamarck’s view that acquired characteristics can also drive evolution. Darwin thought that the use and disuse of animals of their certain parts had effects on the evolution of a particular species. This flaw however, did not discredit Darwin’s more important observations on how natural selection drives evolution. The theory of natural selection is also important in understanding variations in organisms that exist today. Darwin was able to demonstrate how one species could have evolved from another to adapt to their environment. For instance, flying squirrels may have evolved from simple squirrels to get the food that they need to survive more easily. Complex structures of organs, such as a human’s hand, for instance, could have developed from the simple hands of a creature which other primates share ancestry with. Today, the concept of the survival of the fittest is not only important in the field of evolutionary biology but also in other disciplines, such as social theory and economics. Scientists today are continuously exploring Darwin’s ideas to develop more sound concepts. These concepts should be helpful in understanding how nature works and how humans might respond to its mechanisms. Humans can base agricultural and conservation practices on the many facets of Darwin’s theory to produce useful results in the real world. Evolution today is continuously happening and Darwin’s theory is a vital scientific tool to understand this process and apply it to real-world problems. References Arthur, W. (1987). Theories of Life: Darwin, Mendel, and Beyond. London: Penguin Books. Cuvier, G., et al. (2003). The Evolution Debate, 1813-1870. London: Routledge. Darwin, C. , et al. (1996). On evolution: the development of the theory of natural selection. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. Endler, J. & A. Endler . (1986). Natural Selection in the Wild. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Gould, S. J. (1979). Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History. New York: Norton Wichler, G.. (1961). Charles Darwin: the founder of the theory of evolution and natural selection. London: Pergamon Press. Williams, G. C. (2001). Adaptation and Natural Selection. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Loren Eiseley: How Death Became Natural Essay

Loren Eiseley describes how the human quest for certainty has led to consider the death before life. Death was seen as an unnatural thing at the time, especially Christians believed that it was the â€Å"Fall from the Garden†(33). Then, Eiseley describes that the concept of death or extinction is a necessary precursor for an evolutionary theory. He justifies the Death’s becoming natural through the transition from deism to catastrophism. The displacement towards catastrophism is therefore shown as the explanation of the extinction of living forms and the reason why death became natural. From Eighteenth century until toward the final decade of the century, people did not accept the idea that the species could be â€Å"utterly extinguished†(42). Deism was certainly the philosophy they believed to explain the extinction; They believed that God â€Å"immediately interposed his will in nature†(42) and â€Å"supernaturally intervened in mundane affairs†(42). However the first chapter, How the World became Natural, describes that the sense of divine intervention in Nature was being lost and instead the gradual and incessant action of natural forces were recognized in producing geological change. Likewise, catastrophism â€Å"persuaded man to accept both death and progressive change in the universe†(44). Instead of the conception that all the â€Å"major structural plans existed in the mind of God†(46), people started to observe the patterns of life, â€Å"the divine blueprints, persisted from one age to another†(48). â€Å"Life was a historic progression in which the past died totally†(49). Sir Charles Lyell says that the reason why it is inevitable for some species to suffer a reduction in numbers and to be replaced by others, and thus the life is a long course of geological change by natural forces is that â€Å"every living creature competed for living space and that every change of season, every shift of shore line, gave advantages to some forms of life and restricted space available to others†(51-52). From his observation, Lyell makes Death become natural— â€Å"a product of the struggle for existence†(51). However, extinction of species cannot be fully elucidated even by conceptions of extinction according to catastrophism.†It can be ascertained only by careful and precise field observation†(33). There are so many theories, but most of them are unprovable. Relevant matierals such as fossils may help raise objections to those theories, but the theories must be constantly tested and discarded to produce better hypotheses based on the surviving data. Natural disasters in the shape of disease or climactic shifts may be sufficient to explain a mass reduction in the numbers of particular species, but they are still insufficient to explain the reason why the species are not able to rebound. For example, faunas and floras that were prevalent in certain continents were no longer living representatives in Europe. Yet, the reason for their reduction in numbers is only theoretically stated either â€Å"by man or by changes of climate†(39). Lyell even overthrows the â€Å"extinction-in-mass conception of the catastrophists† (54) in order to find an accurate explanation about the geological change of faunas; â€Å"Faunas might shift with time and geography, but this might not involve necessary progression through the vertical realm of geology†(53). Questions 1. Can catastrophism be an accurate and adequate explanation to the extinction of living forms? 2. On page 54, life is described by Lyell as â€Å"a perverse, unexplainable force that crawled and changed through the strata†. What is the relationship between life and death according to Lyell? 3. What is â€Å"the secret†(57,58) to death according to Lyell? 4. Why did Lyell overthrow catastrophistic idea?

Whats a Good PSAT Score for 2016 Expert Analysis

What's a Good PSAT Score for 2016 Expert Analysis SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you took the PSAT in October of 2016, then you got your scores back in mid-December, just before winter break. Your PSAT score report gives you a few different score types, including your total scores, section scores, and Selection Index. With all this data, how can you sort through the numbers to figure out what is a good PSAT score? This guide will go over the full scoring system of the PSAT so you know exactly what makes a good score. Let’s start with a quick glossary explaining the various types of PSAT scores on your score report. Types of PSAT Scores: A Glossary At first glance, your PSAT score reportcan look pretty confusing. You’re going to see all sorts of scoresdescribing how you did. If you don’t know what each type of score means, then you’ll be left with little understanding of how you performedon the PSAT. There will be six main pieces of data on your PSAT score report: your scaled total scores, section scores, raw scores, subscores, Selection Index, and percentiles. Here’s what all of these terms mean: Scaled total scores: your total scores on the PSAT that range between 320 and 1520. Half of the total score comes from the Math sections, and the other half comes from Evidence-based Reading and Writing (i.e., the Reading and Writing and Language sections together). Scaled section scores: two scores, one for Math and one for Evidence-based Reading and Writing, both of which fall between 160 and 760. Section (test) scores: three scores, one for Math, one for Reading, and one for Writing and Language, all of which fall between 8 and 38. Subscores: seven scores that all range between 1 and 15. Subscores tell you how you did on certain types of questions, some of which appear across two or more sections of the PSAT. You’ll get a subscore for questions that fallinto these seven categories: Command of Evidence, Words in Context, Expression of Ideas, Standard English Conventions, Heart of Algebra, Problem Solving and Data Analysis, and Passport to Advanced Math. Raw scores: three scores, one for each PSAT section, that represent the number of questions you got right. The ranges for raw scores vary by section. You can get a maximum raw score of 48 for Math, 47 for Reading, and 44 for Writing and Language. Selection Index: one score that ranges from 48 to 228. Your selection index is the sum of your three section scores between 8 and 38 multiplied by 2 ((section score + section score + section score) x2). The National Merit Scholarship Distinction uses Selection Index to award Commended Student and Semifinalist status. Percentiles: your ranking, represented as a percent, compared to other test-takers. Percentiles tell you what percentage of other students you scored the same as or better than. If you score in the 80th percentile, then you scored the same as or better than 80% of other test-takers. So, there you have it, all of the data on your not-so-straightforward PSAT score report. Out of all of these different score types, are any more important than others? If you find yourself confused about the different types of PSAT scores, scroll back up to review the definitions above! Which PSAT Scores Are Most Important? All of these PSAT score types are useful in different ways, but the most important ones for understanding how you did are your scaled total and section scores. As you saw above, you can score a max of 1520 on the PSAT or 760 in each section. While the Reading and Writing and Language sections are separate when you take the PSAT, they’re combined to bring you one scaled section score. Because these two sections unite, your total scores are made up of half math and half verbal. The other important piece of data for students competing for National Merit distinction is the Selection Index. NMSC sets a different cutoff for each state to decide who becomes Commended Student and Semifinalist. The top 1% of scorers in each state are named Semifinalists, and they couldmove on to become Finalists and win scholarship money. Finally, your non-scaled section scores, raw scores, and subscores are most useful for giving you detailed insight into how you did on the PSAT. These scores reveal how you did on each section and question type. This kind of understanding is especially helpfulwhen you go on to study for the SAT, as they show your strengths and weaknesses as a test-taker. By looking at these scores, you can figure out where you most need to improve, whether, for instance, you need to work on the Writing and Language section or more specifically, â€Å"Command of Evidence† questions. By the way, your section scores and scaled scoresaren't totally unrelated. You can easily convert your section scores between 8 and 38 to your scaled scores between 160 and 760. To get your verbal scores, add your Reading and Writing and Language section scores together and multiply by 10. To get your math scaled scores, simply multiply your section scores by 20. To get your total scores, add your two scaled section scores together. Consider this example, where the student gota 28 in Reading, a 32 in Writing and Language, and a 34 in Math. Test Section (Test) Score Scaled Section Score Total Score Reading 28 (28 + 32) * 10 = 600 600 + 680 = 1280 Writing and Language 32 Math 34 34 * 20 = 680 The different score ranges aren’t completelyrandom, but rather are related to one another. Now that you have the tools to sort through your PSAT score report, let’s go back to our original, million-dollar question: what makes a good score on the PSAT? Read on to find out. As you can see, the different PSAT scores aren't totally unrelated. They fit together like pieces in a puzzle. What Makes a Good Score on the PSAT? Before we can answer thequestion of â€Å"what’s a good score on the PSAT,† we first need to define what we mean by â€Å"good.† Good is a subjective term, and everyone will have their own personal goals for the PSAT. To help us find some answers, let’s define good in three ways. First, â€Å"good† can mean that you scored better than 50% or more of other test-takers. Based on this definition, we can use percentiles to figure out what makes an above-average PSAT score. Second, we can define â€Å"good† PSAT scores as scores thatqualifyfor National Merit. Actually, qualifying for National Merit means that you got excellent, amazing, near-perfect PSAT scores. We’ll discuss what you need to get in greater detail below. Finally, we’ll consider what colleges are looking for in terms of SAT scores. The PSAT is a very similar test to the SAT, so your score can help you figure out whether you’re on track to getting the scores you need for your colleges of choice. Starting with our first set of criteria, let’s consider PSAT percentiles. How do PSAT scores correspond to percentiles? One person's favorite activity could be another person's nightmare. What makes something good, like a PSAT score, can be subjective. How Do PSAT Scores Correspond to Percentiles? Full Chart Percentiles compare your scores to those of other test-takers. If you score in the 75th percentile, then you scored the same as or better than 75% of other students. The remaining 25% scored better than you. The highest possible percentile on the PSAT is the 99th percentile. You don’t have to get a perfect PSAT score to land in the 99th percentile. We don’t yet have percentile data for the October 2016 administration of the PSAT, but we can look at percentiles from the 2015 PSAT. They don’t change much, if at all, from year to year. Here’s the full chart that shows how PSAT scaled section scores compare, usingpercentiles. PSAT Section Score Reading and Writing Percentile Math Percentile 760 99+ 99+ 750 99+ 99+ 740 99+ 99 730 99+ 98 720 99 98 710 99 97 700 99 97 690 98 96 680 98 96 670 97 95 660 96 94 650 95 93 640 94 93 630 92 92 620 91 90 610 89 89 600 86 88 590 84 86 580 82 83 570 79 80 560 77 78 550 74 74 540 71 70 530 67 66 520 63 61 510 59 59 500 54 55 490 50 50 480 47 45 470 43 39 460 39 36 450 35 33 440 32 27 430 28 23 420 25 19 410 23 16 400 21 14 390 18 11 380 15 8 370 11 6 360 9 5 350 7 4 340 5 3 330 4 1 320 2 1 310 1 1 300 1 1 290 1- 1 280 1- 1 270 1- 1 260 1- 1 250 1- 1 240 1- 1 230 1- 1- 220 1- 1- 210 1- 1- 200 1- 1- 190 1- 1- 180 1- 1- 170 1- 1- 160 1- 1- As you can see, percentiles work slightly differently for Math and Evidence-based Reading and Writing, with Math being a little more competitive at most score levels. For instance, a verbal score of 700 ranks in the 99th percentile, whereas you’d need a 740 in math to score in the 99th percentile. This variation happens because more students get top scores in the math section than they do in the verbal section. For the most part, though, the two section scores correspond to percentiles in a similar way. Using this chart, let’s pick out what you have to score in each section to get a â€Å"good† PSAT score in a higher than average percentile. Using percentiles is a competitive, but useful way of figuring out what makes a good score on the PSAT. What Is a Good PSAT Score Based on Percentiles? If we define a good score as one that's competitive, we can use percentiles to figure outout what scores rank higher than the majority of other test-takers. To rank in the 50th percentile, you’d need a 490 in both sections. What about to rank in the 70th, 80th, 90th, or even 99th percentiles? Here are the section scores you’d need to score higher than the majority of other students. Percentile Reading and Writing Score Math Score Composite Score 70% 540 540 1080 80% 580 570 1150 90% 620 620 1240 99% 700 740 1440 Oddly enough, you’d have to score slightly higher in the verbal section than the math to make it into the 80th percentile. To make it into the 99th percentile, though, you’d have to score 40 points higher in math than in verbal. If you’re a strong test-taker aiming for National Merit, then a good PSAT to you would be one that qualifies for Commended Student or Semifinalist. Read on to learn what is a good PSAT score for National Merit distinction. What’s a Good PSAT Score for National Merit? The National Merit Scholarship Corporation distinguishes students who get top scores on the PSAT. Students who score in the top 3% to 4% are named Commended Students, and students who get top 1% scores are named Semifinalist. NMSC doesn’t rely on percentiles, though, but on itsSelection Index. Each state has its own Selection Index cutoff that students need to make to qualify for National Merit. Before showing you all of the cutoffs, let’s review how your Selection Index score is calculated so you understand where it comes from. Being named a National Merit Commended Scholar or Semifinalist is a very impressive distinction to have on your college applications. How Is Selection Index Calculated? You can easily calculate your Selection Index score once you know your section, or test, scores between 8 and 38. You simply add your section scores for Reading, Writing and Language, and Math together, and then multiply the entire sum by 2. Let’s say you got a 35 in Reading, a 32 in Writing and Language, and a 37 in Math. Here’s how you would figure out your Selection Index. Section Score Sum x 2 Selection Index Score Reading 35 (35 + 32 + 37) x 2 = 208 Writing and Language 32 Math 37 Once you add together and double your section scores, you get a Selection Index of 208. Does this score qualify for National Merit Semifinalist? That all depends on where you live. Keep reading for the full chart that shows the qualifying cutoff scores for National Merit in each state. Qualifying PSAT Scores for National Merit, State by State This chart shows the Selection Index score you need to qualify for Semifinalist in everystate. While National Merit Scholarship Corporation hasn’t released the full list of cutoffs, they do tell interested individuals what scores they need for their own state. This list, therefore, was crowdsourced from individuals across the country. If you think any cutoffs are in error, let us know in the comments! You can also verify your own state's cutoff by calling NMSC at (847) 866-5100. Here’s the full list of state cutoffs to qualify for National Merit Semifinalist. State PSAT Cutoff for NM Semifinalist Alabama 215 Alaska 213 Arizona 219 Arkansas 213 California 221 Colorado 218 Connecticut 220 Delaware 218 DC 222 Florida 217 Georgia 219 Hawaii 217 Idaho 214 Illinois 219 Indiana 217 Iowa 215 Kansas 217 Kentucky 215 Louisiana 214 Maine 214 Maryland 221 Massachusetts 222 Michigan 216 Minnesota 219 Mississippi 212 Missouri 216 Montana 210 Nebraska 215 Nevada 214 New Hampshire 216 New Jersey 222 New Mexico 213 New York 219 North Carolina 218 North Dakota 209 Ohio 217 Oklahoma 213 Oregon 219 Pennsylvania 218 Rhode Island 217 South Carolina 215 South Dakota 209 Tennessee 218 Texas 220 Utah 215 Vermont 215 Virginia 221 Washington 220 West Virginia 209 Wisconsin 215 Wyoming 209 Average score 216 On average, students need a Selection Index of 216. If you live in Washington, DC, Massachusetts, or New Jersey, then you need to meet the highest cutoff of 222. If you haven't taken the PSAT yet and are aiming for National Merit, then I'd recommend setting your target scores at least two to five points higher than your state's cutoff on this list. The cutoffs can fluctuate a bit from year to year, depending on how students do on the PSAT. Once you’ve found your state’s cutoff, how can you figure out what scores you need to qualify for National Merit? Your Selection Index cutoff for National Merit depends on whereyou live in the country. How to Calculate Your Target Scores for National Merit This section is for students that haven't taken the PSAT yet and are aiming for National Merit. You read above how to convert your PSAT section scores into the Selection Index. If you know what Selection Index you’re aiming for, all you need to do is work backwardto figure out your target section scores. Remember how you needed to add your section scores together and then multiply by two to get your Selection Index? Working backward just means dividing your Selection Index by two and then further splitting that quotient into three. Let’s say you live in New Hampshire. To qualify for National Merit, students who took the PSAT in 2015 needed a Selection Index of 216. Our first step, then, is to divide 216 by 2. 216 / 2 = 108. Now you know that your section scores in Reading, Writing and Language, and Math need to add up to 108. You could split 108 into three to reveal that you need a section score of 36 in each of the three sections. 108 / 3 = 36 However, not everyone is equally strong at math and verbal sections. You might aim a little higher in math and a little lower in Reading and Writing and Language. As long as your section scores still add up to 108, you’ll still get a Selection Index of 216 and potentially qualify for National Merit. Once you understand what total section scores you need, you can distribute your target scores among the three PSAT sections however you want. Set realistic goals for yourself based on your own math, reading, and writing skills. Of course, only a small group of students are aiming to become National Merit Semifinalist. Only 16,000 of the 1.6 million who take the PSAT will receive this distinction. A good PSAT score is also one that shows you’re on track to achieving your SAT goals and getting into college. Let’s consider our third and final piece of criteria for defining a â€Å"good† PSAT score by thinking about your own personal college goals. Qualifying for National Merit is like getting a gold medal in the PSAT. What Is a Good PSAT Score for College? The PSAT is extremely similar to the SAT, and your performance can help predict how you’ll do on the SAT. Almost everyone improves when they take these tests more than once, sothe PSAT is a useful trial run. You'll likely score higher on the SAT than you would if you'd never taken the PSAT. You can use your PSAT score report to see your current scoring level and findout where you can improve to hit your target SAT scores.To figure out your target SAT scores, you should do some college research. Find schools that you’re interested in, and look for the average SAT scores of accepted students. This piece of data will help you set your own SAT goals. Once you know what scores you need to get into your colleges of interest, you can use your PSAT score report to design a study plan. Pinpoint your strengths and weaknesses, and write down a personalized SAT study plan that targets your weak areas. You can set aside a certain amount of time for studying depending on how many points you’re seeking to improve. Here’s an estimate of how many hours you need to study to achieve variousscore improvements. 0-50 SAT composite point improvement: 10 hours 50-100 point improvement: 20 hours 100-200 point improvement: 40 hours 200-300 point improvement: 80 hours 300-500 point improvement: 150 hours+ If you’re already scoring close to your target SAT scores, then you can feel satisfied with your PSAT scores. If you fell below by a few hundred points, then you need to kick your test prep into gear and devote several hours a week to getting ready for the SAT. If you have months to prepare, then you can definitely see a big improvement in your scores and skills as a test-taker. Your PSAT score report offers a useful starting point for your SAT prep. Whether or not you think you got a good score on the PSAT, you can still achieve a good score on the SAT with enough commitment. In closing, let’s go over the key points you need to remember about what makes a good score on the 2016 PSAT. What scores do you need to be a competitive applicant to your dream school? The PSAT can help you work towards them. 2016 PSAT Scores: Key Takeaways If you took the PSAT in 2016, then you will get your scores back in mid-December. Your PSAT score report might look confusing at first glance, but now you understand what all of its scaled scores, section scores, and subscores mean. Any students aiming for National Merit will also search out their Selection Index score to get a sense if they qualified. If you haven't taken the PSAT yet, you can use the cutoffs to set goals for your scores. Everyone has their own definition for what is aâ€Å"good† PSAT score. You might think a good score is one that is higher than that of most other students. You can use percentiles to figure out what makes a good score on the PSAT. If you’re a high-achieving student who has spent time prepping for the PSAT, then good to you might mean receiving National Merit distinction. National Merit is extremely competitive and only goes to the top scorers across the country. Finally, scoring well on the PSAT relates to your plans for taking the SAT and getting into college. You might have a certain goal based on your eventual college applications. Even if you fall short of it, you can spend boost your SAT performance through studying. Taking the PSAT is a valuable experience that will help you get ready for the SAT.In the end, you decide what makes a good score for you based on your own personal goals and plans. What’s Next? If you are named National Merit Semifinalist, how do you move on to become Finalist and win scholarship money? Check out this full guide to learn how to become a National Merit Finalist. How many hours should you devote to SAT prep? This guide will help you figure out how long you need to study for the SAT. What’s the best way to prepare for the SAT? Check out our ultimate SAT prep study guide for the best resources to get ready for the test. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab

The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab Introduction The golden age was a liberating period of Arab civilization. This period marked the defeat of Israeli crusaders and the elimination of the Ismaili Fatimid threat in the Middle East. The establishment of the Khwarazmian Empire, in Persia, also strengthened Arab civilization because it protected Islam from external threats, attacks, and influences (Morgan 11).Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, this peace only lasted for a short period before the Mongol empire invaded Southwest Asia. In the wake of their arrival, they changed the social dynamics of the Middle East by causing untold destruction and despair that was unequal to any other global event. Genghis Khan is a common name that emerges whenever historians explain the history of the Mongol empire. Indeed, it is during his time that the empire witnessed the greates t expansion in ancient history (Morgan 4). From a small tribe of nomads in North and central Asia, Khan was able to transform the nomadic lifestyles of a few tribesmen into a powerful empire (Mongol empire). Particularly, Khan used terror as his most effective weapon (Dutch 3). He often spared colonies that did not fight him, but massacred anybody who attempted to oppose his expansion. His entry into the Arab world was not extensive as other parts of the Asian continent. In fact, the University of Calgary (4) says most parts of the Muslim world did not experience Khan’s terror. However, in 1255, this short-lived peace with Khan ended. This paper explores the destruction of Arab civilization and Islam under the Mongol empire. In detail, this paper shows that under the leadership of Khan’s brother, Hulagu Khan, the Mongol empire destroyed Arab civilization through the destruction of Islamic infrastructure. Its main targets were Persia, Egypt, Syria, and modern-day Iraq. This paper also shows that much of the Muslim world did not have the capability of resisting Mongol aggression and therefore fell into Mongol rule quickly.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This changed the dynamics of the Islamic faith, as the Mongol empire destroyed educational facilities, mosques, libraries, and other structures that supported the faith. Comprehensively, this paper highlights the â€Å"near death† of Islam and Arab civilization under Mongol rule. Destruction of Islamic Infrastructure Historical excerpts say Hulagu Khan had a very deep resentment for Islam and its antecedents (Morgan 111). The University of Calgary (4) says this hatred came from some of his close confidants (with predominantly Christian and Buddhist influences) who influenced the formulation of Mongol policies. Through Khan’s loyal lieutenants, he did not spare any kind of I slamic support structure. For example, when they conquered Baghdad, a strong army of over 150,000 soldiers destroyed Mosques, Islamic libraries, and religious sites (Morgan 10). Sequentially, this section of the paper explores these different forms of destruction. Destruction of Educational Institutions Before the Mongol empire set foot in the Middle East, Islam thrived because of the vibrancy of its educational institutions (Madrasa) which taught Islamic doctrines to new generations. However, when the Mongols came, they destroyed these institutions and burned down any educational material that existed in them. For example, Baghdad was an important cultural and spiritual center where Muslims from around the world gathered and lived. The city had more than 30 universities, which taught Islamic doctrines to the greater Arab population (University of Calgary 14). Among these universities was Mustansiriya College, which was a prominent Islamic Centre for excellence (University of Calgar y 15). From the destruction of such educational institutions, historians estimate that a lot of Islamic knowledge was lost through this invasion. The Mongols destroyed the libraries, burned books, and killed Islamic scholars and educators. Through this act, they aimed to curtail the growth of Islamic doctrines, which Muslim scholars safeguarded in their educational institutions. Morgan says,Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More â€Å"On their way, they destroyed the Assassin’s (Hashishin) sanctuary at Alamut and sacked its library where the Assassins had collected techniques of murder and terror, thus making it impossible for future generations to gain any in-depth knowledge of the Islamic doctrine and nefarious activities of the religion† (27). Dutch (13) says the extent of the destruction was very extensive, such that Bagh dad’s rivers choked with ink from the destroyed libraries. This level of destruction had a huge toll on Islamic educational infrastructure through the loss of Islamic knowledge/doctrines. Destruction of Agricultural Infrastructure Most of the destruction of agricultural infrastructure occurred in Baghdad. Indeed, agricultural investments that spanned thousands of years established functional canal networks that supported agriculture in the large semi-arid city. Few historians dispute the fact that this development marked the helm of the golden age (Morgan 21). Baghdad’s success in the agricultural front was only a highlight of the city’s stature as an intellectual, cultural, and economic Islamic capital. Certainly, scholars, scientists, Muslim philosophers, and experts were attracted to the Arabian capital, as the center of Islamic dominance. It was therefore unsurprising when the Baghdad invasion marked the decline of Arab civilization and the golden age becaus e in the wake of the destruction, many Islamic successes in science and philosophy ended. The destruction of agricultural technology, which Arabs had built for hundreds of years, also affected the Islamic population, in terms of human population sustainability. This type of destruction was a tactical strategy by the Mongol empire to starve Arab cities by denying them food supply. For example, military personnel cut canal pipes that supplied water to the agricultural fields of Mesopotamia (the infrastructure had taken thousands of years to build) (Morgan 26). They destroyed this infrastructure with no intention of repairing it. Therefore, most of the canal pipes contained poisoned water, which people could not sustain the Muslim population in Baghdad.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Some survivors therefore had to flee the city because it lacked its agricultural lifeline. In fact, the University of Calgary (11) says the destruction of agricultural technology/infrastructure was so severe that the people could not easily restore it (its restoration only happened in the 20th century). The University of Calgary (11) further says the agricultural infrastructure in Iraq was very different from how we know present-day Iraq. The destruction of agricultural fields and technology is significant in understanding the decline of Arab civilization in the wake of the Mongol invasions because agriculture supported Arab civilization for more than 5,000 years (Morgan 30). To explain this view, Dutch says, â€Å"The Mongol invasions and their subsequent rule in the lands, east of the Euphrates, left a legacy of shattered cities, population decline, and overturned technology that undercut the basis for prosperity and success that had sustained the Middle East for many years† (112). The Mongols had a very casual attitude towards agriculture because they were mainly nomadic people. They therefore felt no remorse for destroying Arab agricultural fields, which had taken a lot of time and investments to establish. Their primary concern was the defeat of their enemies. In fact, the empire wanted the fields to remain unused to ensure the surviving population did not regroup. The extent of this devastation does not match with any other type of devastation in ancient or present-day history (Morgan 26). Comprehensively, the destruction of agricultural fields created a sense of hopelessness among the population. In fact, most of the surviving population had to look towards the Far East for support. They were at the mercy of the Mongols. Furthermore, with a population decline of up to 90%, understandably, Islam was on its â€Å"deathbed.† Previous conquests in other parts of the Middle East, and the successful assimilation of natives into Buddhism, left on ly some parts of the Middle East holding on to Islam. Particularly, North Africa was the last frontier of the Arab world, which openly practiced Islam. Observers say if the Mongol empire invaded Egypt, it would have easily conquered Islam (Dutch 31).However, this did not happen, after Egyptian Mamluks successfully resisted Mongol invasion. This event had a significant impact on the world’s history because historians project that if the Mongol empire successfully invaded Egypt, and gained access to a greater part of North Africa, it would have been difficult for European colonizers to defeat them in the scramble for Africa (Dutch 32). The destruction of Damascus and Baghdad was therefore the last frontier for Mongol invasion. Looting Most Islamic regimes had undertaken previous conquests in Europe and other parts of Asia. They accumulated a lot of wealth, which they used to finance their empires. When the Mongol empire invaded the Middle East, most existing Arab empires had ac cumulated a lot of wealth and invested the same in science and technology. The Mongol empire looted most of this wealth and repatriated the same to their colonies. For example, the empire ransacked the palaces and took all the gold and other forms of material wealth from their rulers. This act left their enemies weak (Dutch 31). Psychological Scar A significant success of the Mongol empire, in destabilizing the Muslim faith, was to instill suspicion and fear among the Muslim people. Morgan (44) particularly pays a close attention to the Baghdad invasion and says the invasion dented a serious psychological blow to the surviving inhabitants of Baghdad. Certainly, the Mongol invasion instilled suspicion and fear among surviving Islamic people who looked inward and became afraid to support any type of religious conflict. Consequently, they became suspicious that they would be caught practicing Islam and instead adopted a very conservative lifestyle (a sharp contrast from the vibrant Isl amic lifestyle that preceded the Mongolian invasion in Baghdad). Morgan (44) says, before the invasion, there was an intellectual flowering of Islam in the greater region of Baghdad, but the invasion stifled this freedom. In fact, Dutch (15) says after the Mongols destroyed the mosques, they replaced them with Buddhist temples and instilled fear on people who were willing to continue practicing Islam. The Mongols also took the surviving women and children to their camps, where they assimilated them into the Mongol lifestyle. Depopulation Since the Mongolian invasion was merciless on anybody (rulers) who opposed their invasion, their incursion led to the deaths of thousands of people. Previous cities that were flowing with economic and social brilliance collapsed under the absence of people who would support the activities of the city. Baghdad, for example, suffered a huge reduction in its population as thousands of people either fled or died in the invasion. This depopulation means that a huge following of Muslim faithful died in the invasion, thereby leaving the once strong group of religious followers fragile, weak, and traumatized. To paint an accurate picture of the level of destruction that hit Baghdad, Morgan says, They swept through the city like hungry falcons attacking a flight of doves, or like raging wolves attacking sheep, with loose reins and shameless faces, murdering and spreading terror. Beds and cushions made of gold and encrusted with jewels cut to pieces with knives and torn to shreds. Those hiding behind the veils of the great Harem were dragged through the streets and alleys, each of them becoming a plaything, as the population died at the hands of the invaders (19). The level of destruction in Baghdad was therefore extensive and it led to a serious decline of human population that would have otherwise continued Islamic traditions. The decline of agricultural productivity further complicated the existence of the small populations that surv ived after the invasion. Historical excerpts say the invasion forced the surviving Arab population to farm for subsistence living (University of Calgary 11). Some researchers say the extent of devastation could not allow the surviving population to farm for their existence. This situation led to a near 90% decline in population numbers. Census numbers produced in one Iraqi province, Diyala, show that the province, which supported about 900,000 people at the height of Arab civilization, only supported about 60,000 people after the invasion (University of Calgary 11). The population failed to grow even after the invasion because a census conducted by the Ottoman Empire showed that there were only 600,000 people living in what is known today as modern Syria and Palestine, several years after the invasion (initially, these two countries supported a population of about 4,000,000 Arabs at the height of Arab civilization) (Morgan 28). Conclusion The Mongol invasion of the Arab world was pe rhaps the greatest threat to Arab civilization. After invading most parts of North, central, and West Asia, the Mongol empire was very close to â€Å"destroying† Islam. As explained through different sections of this paper, the empire mainly did so by destroying the Islamic infrastructure that supported the religion. Baghdad was the worst hit target, possibly because it was the center of Islamic culture and spirituality. The destruction of educational facilities, palaces, mosques, and libraries showed the extent that the Mongol empire was willing to go to destroy Arab civilization and Islam. However, this paper draws attention to the human massacre that characterized the invasion as the greatest threat to the existence of Islam and Arab civilization. By killing many Islamic faithful and reducing the population of city inhabitants by close to 90%, it is accurate to say the Mongol empire was close to â€Å"wiping out† the entire Muslim population. An extension of the sam e massacre to North Africa would have severed Arab civilization and ended Islam. Understandably, such levels of human devastation left a strong psychological scar to the surviving Muslim population who were afraid to practice Islam. Although, ironically, the Mongol empire later assimilated to Islam, the vibrancy of Islam, as we know it today, barely underscores the near collapse of the faith at the height of Mongol supremacy. Dutch, Steven. The Mongols, Wisconsin, WS: University of Wisconsin, 1998. Print. Morgan, David. The Mongols, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. Print. University of Calgary 2013, History of Jihad against the Mongols (1050-1258). Web.

10 Types of Marriage Records for Family History

10 Types of Marriage Records for Family History The different types of marriage records that might be available for your ancestors, and the amount and kind of information they contain,  will vary depending on the location and time period, as well as sometimes the parties religion. In some localities, a marriage license may include the most details, while in a different locality and time period more information might be found in the marriage register. Locating all available marriage record types increases the chance of learning additional information- including confirmation that the marriage actually took place, the names of parents or witnesses, or the religion of one or both parties to the marriage. Records of Intentions to Marry Marriage Banns - Banns, sometimes spelled bans, were public notice of an intended marriage between two specified persons on a particular date. Banns began as a church custom, later proscribed by English common law, that required the parties to give advance public notice of their intention to marry over three consecutive Sundays, either in church or a public place. The purpose was to give anyone who might have an objection to the marriage, to state why the marriage should not take place. Usually, this was because one or both of the parties was too young or already married, or because they were more closely related than allowed by law.Marriage Bond - a monetary pledge or guarantee given to the court by the intended groom and a bondsman to affirm  that there was no moral or legal reason why the couple could not be married, and also that the groom would not change his mind. If either party declined to go through with the union, or of one of the parties was found to be ineligible- for example, already married, too closely related to the other party, or underage without parental approval- the bond money was generally forfeit. The bondsman, or surety, was often a brother or uncle to the bride, although he could also be a relative of the groom, or even a neighbor of  a  friend of either of the two parties. The use of marriage bonds was especially common in the southern and mid-Atlantic states through the first half of the nineteenth century. In colonial Texas, where Spanish law required colonists to be Catholic, a marriage bond was used in a slightly different fashion- as a pledge to local authorities in situations where there was no Roman Catholic priest available that the couple agreed to have their civil marriage solemnized by a priest as soon as the opportunity came available.Marriage License -   Perhaps the most commonly found record of a marriage is the marriage license. The purpose of a marriage license was to ensure that the marriage conformed to all legal requirements, such as both parties being of lawful age and not too closely related to one another.  After confirming there were no impediments to the marriage, a  license form was issued by a local public official (usually the county clerk) to the couple intending to marry, and granted permission to anyone authorized to solemnize marriages (minister, Justice of the Peace, etc.) to perform the ceremony.  The marriage was usually- but not always- performe d within a few days after the granting of the license. In many localities both the marriage license and the marriage return (see below) are found recorded together. Marriage Application - In some jurisdictions and time periods, law required that a marriage application to be filled out before a marriage license could be issued. In such situations, the application often required more information than was recorded on the marriage license, making it especially useful for family history research. Marriage applications may be recorded in separate books, or might be found with the marriage licenses.   Consent Affidavit - In most jurisdictions, individuals under the lawful age could still be married with  the consent of a parent or guardian as long as they were still above a minimum age. The age at which an individual required consent varied by locality and time period, as well as whether they were male or female. Commonly, this might be anyone under the age of twenty-one; in some jurisdictions, lawful age was sixteen or eighteen, or even as young as thirteen or fourteen for females. Most jurisdictions also had a minimum age, not allowing children under the age of twelve or fourteen to marry, even with parental consent. In some cases, this consent may have taken the form of a written affidavit, signed by the parent (usually the father) or legal guardian. Alternatively, the consent may have been given verbally to the county clerk in front of one or more witnesses, and then noted along with the marriage record. Affidavits were also sometimes recorded to affirm that both individuals were of legal age. Marriage Contract or Settlement - While much less common than the other marriage record types discussed here, marriage contracts have been recorded since colonial times. Similar to what we would now call a prenuptial agreement, marriage contracts or settlements were agreements made prior to marriage, most commonly when the woman owned property in her own name or wished to ensure that property left by a former husband would go to his children and not the new spouse. Marriage contracts might be found filed among the marriage records, or recorded in the deed books or records of the local court.In areas governed by civil law, however, marriage contracts were much more common, used as a means for both parties to protect their property, regardless of their economic or social status. Marriage licenses, bonds,  and  banns all indicate that a marriage was  planned  to take place, but not that it actually happened. For proof that a marriage actually took place, youll need to look for any of the following records: Records Documenting That a Marriage Took Place Marriage Certificate  - A marriage certificate confirms a marriage and is signed by the person officiating at the marriage. The downside is, that the original marriage certificate ends up in the hands of the bride and groom, so if it hasnt been passed down in the family, you may not be able to locate it. In most localities, however, the information from the marriage certificate, or at least verification that the marriage actually took place, is recorded at the bottom or on the back of the marriage license, or in a separate marriage book (see  marriage register  below). Marriage Return / Ministers Return  - Following the wedding, the minister or officiant would complete a paper called a  marriage return indicating that he had married the couple and on what date. He would later return it to the local registrar as proof that the marriage occurred. In many  localities,  you can find this return  recorded at the bottom or on the back of the marriage license. Alternatively, the information may be located in a Marriage Register (see below) or in a separate volume of ministers returns. The lack of an actual marriage date or  marriage  return does not always mean the marriage didnt take place, however. In some  cases,  the minister or officiant may have simply forgotten to drop off the return, or it wasnt recorded for whatever reason. Marriage Register  - Local clerks generally recorded the marriages they performed in a marriage register or book. Marriages performed by another officiant (e.g.  minister, justice of the peace, etc.) were also generally recorded, following receipt of the  marriage  return. Sometimes marriage registers incorporate information from a variety of marriage documents, so may include the names of the couples; their ages, birthplaces, and current locations; the names of their parents, the names of witnesses, the name of the officiant and the date of marriage. Newspaper Announcement  - Historical newspapers are a rich source for information on marriages, including those which may predate the recording of marriages in that locality. Search  historical newspaper archives  for engagement announcements and marriage announcements, paying special attention to clues such as the location of the marriage, the name of the officiant (may indicate religion), the members of the marriage party, the names of guests, etc. Dont overlook religious or ethnic newspapers if you know the ancestors religion, or if they belong to a specific ethnic group (e.g. the local German-language newspaper).

Rape in the Military Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rape in the Military - Essay Example 340). Women are not immune to rape even within their rank and file of the U.S. military which state of affairs will be the subject of discussion in the rest of this paper. Recent CBS news of dt January 27, 2013 reports the rampant rape incidents in the U.S. military where 15 percent of personnel are women. A newly recruited 24 year old in the Air Force has been raped in her unconscious state by her recruiting officer in party she had been called in to meet her fellow soldiers. As she had to drive her car, she did not take alcohol. But her officer had put some intoxicating substance in her soft drinks. She has not made a complaint for fear of losing her job. Her new superior officer has been making sexual advances towards her which she hesitates to report to her commander who happens to be the friend of her superior. The woman cannot easily quit the military without the help of her commanders. There is no severe deterrent punishment for rape and other sex crimes within the military un like in the civilian world. The U.S. Air Force’s own data shows that there were 790 incidents of sexual assaults and harassment by the members of the Air Force in the last year as against 614 in the previous year. In the Army, there were 1,695 cases and in Navy and Marines 883 cases in 2011 involving male members attacking women members. Only 25 percent of the sexual attack incidents in the military are reported and according to the official estimates, there are 19,000 such incidents occurring every year. Forty percent of victims hold men in higher ranks responsible and they come from their chain of command. General Mark Welsh, the Chief of Air Force has vowed to bring down the number to zero rather than lowering the number. 6- Air Force Attorneys have been designated to deal with the complaints. Although the Pentagon set up in 2004 Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Office (SAPRO) to contain sexual assault in the military, the crime incidents have not come down but only have been increasing. There are proposals to make legislation to have the investigations taken out of the purview of the military chain of command (Herbert, 2012). Military personnel continue indulging in rape both within and outside as well as in wartimes and peacetimes. A report says that two US naval sailors have been convicted for raping a Japanese woman in October, 2012 while she was walking alongside a street in Okinawa US military base in Japan Both in their early twenties have been sentenced with 10 year and nine year imprisonment respectively. This is a case of US forces committing the crime in Japan (Anonymous, 2013). This is a repeat of a 1995 incident involving a 12 year old Japanese girl who was raped by the US military personnel in Okinawa (Smith, 2004). The fact is that military personnel involved in rape of women within the military are unlikely to be punished and there are 86.5 % chance of the crime being swept under the carpet and 92 % chance of court-martial being avoided. Victims often do not make complaints due to the prevailing culture of acceptance in the US military, fewer prosecutions and the chain of command they have to report through. Women in the military who succeed in obtaining punishment to the military rapists are forced to leave the military service because of harassment in investigation and prosecution(Speier, 2012). No military woman who has been raped can approach a medical facility for treatment as well as for evidence